TOP SCEINCE
When saying ‘please’ is more strategic than magic
By kindergarten age, most children have been taught that “please” is a magic word. “Please” is an expression of politeness that shows courtesy and respect, turning a potential demand into a request that will — poof! — magically be granted.
The study, published in Social Psychology Quarterly and authored by a team of sociologists from UCLA, shows that people say “please” much less often than expected, and mostly when they expect a “no” response is forthcoming.
Whether passing the butter or driving someone to the airport, non-strangers say “please” to each other to sweeten a request when they know the other is likely unwilling, either because they have resisted already or because they are busy doing something else.
The findings suggest there should be less effort put into teaching prescriptive, “one-word-fits-all” principles, and more focus on how to be sensitive to the particulars of a situation.
“Any generic rule — like saying “please” and “thank you” — doesn’t take into account the specific situation, and may not always indicate respect or politeness,” said Andrew Chalfoun, a graduate student studying sociology and lead author of the study. “It may also not be very effective.”
Saying “please” could even be harmful in a given situation.
“In the wrong context, saying ‘please’ may run the risk of sounding pushy or dubious about another’s willingness to help,” Chalfoun said.
For the study, Chalfoun and UCLA sociologists Giovanni Rossi and Tanya Stivers took into account the words, facial expressions and behaviors observed in 17 hours of mostly informal, naturally occurring conversations that were recorded on video among family members, friends and coworkers, with a few exchanges involving strangers. The video cameras had been set up with participants’ consent in homes, workplaces and outdoor areas for a previous study. The conversations took place during everyday activities across a range of settings such as meals, board games like “Catan,” haircuts at a salon, food preparation and in the back room of a retail store. The conversations were in person among British and American English speakers from diverse racial, ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds, and among various age groups. The study did not include business requests, like a customer ordering from a restaurant. They also did not include written or phone requests.
Out of more than a thousand distinct “request attempts” observed in the video-recorded interactions, “please” was used only 69 times, or 7% of the time, mostly when there was a foreseen obstacle to overcome, and not due to perceived subordination, need for deference, difference in gender or the relative size of a request.
In about half of the instances when someone asked for something with “please,” it was because the person they were addressing had already indicated they were unwilling to act as requested or had previously refused. For example, a woman used “please” when asking her spouse to sit down at the dinner table after repeated requests went ignored.
In another third of cases, the person was engaged in an activity incompatible with what was being asked, i.e. in the middle of something else. For example, a man used “please” when asking his spouse to make soup stock, knowing she was busy washing baby bottles.
The researchers also found that children say “please” about as often as adults, and in similar situations. In the video observed by the researchers, a teenager used “please” to ask her mother to buy her a dress when she expected her to say no, because she had rejected a similar request previously. Evidence of the previous rejection came in her mother’s reply after the “please,” which was, “We’ve been through this before.”
“Every community has explicit norms that define what counts as polite or respectful conduct, for example as taught to children or someone new to the community,” Chalfoun said. “We’re interested in understanding whether those norms are in fact followed in everyday life or there are other, more tacit norms that better explain people’s conduct.”
By observing how politeness actually works in everyday life, the team hopes to provide researchers with better models for how to understand the dynamics that underly social behavior.
Cornell University researchers have created microscale robots less than 1 millimeter in size that are printed as a 2D hexagonal “metasheet” but, with a jolt of electricity, morph into preprogrammed 3D shapes and crawl.
The team’s paper, “Electronically Configurable Microscopic Metasheet Robots,” published Sept. 11 in Nature Materials. The paper’s co-lead authors are postdoctoral researchers Qingkun Liu and Wei Wang. The project was led by Itai Cohen, professor of physics. His lab has previously produced microrobotic systems that can actuate their limbs, pump water via artificial cilia and walk autonomously.
In a sense, the origins of the kirigami robot were inspired by “living organisms that can change their shape.” Liu said. “But when people make a robot, once it’s fabricated, it might be able to move some limbs but its overall shape is usually static. So we’ve made a metasheet robot. The ‘meta’ stands for metamaterial, meaning that they’re composed of a lot of building blocks that work together to give the material its mechanical behaviors.”
The robot is a hexagonal tiling composed of approximately 100 silicon dioxide panels that are connected through more than 200 actuating hinges, each about 10 nanometers thin. When electrochemically activated via external wires, the hinges form mountain and valley folds and act to splay open and rotate the panels, allowing the robot to change its coverage area and locally expand and contract by up to 40%. Depending which hinges are activated, the robot can adopt various shapes and potentially wrap itself around other objects, and then unfold itself back into a flat sheet.
Cohen’s team is already thinking of the next phase of metasheet technology. They anticipate combining their flexible mechanical structures with electronic controllers to create ultra-responsive “elastronic” materials with properties that would never be possible in nature. Applications could range from reconfigurable micromachines to miniaturized biomedical devices and materials that can respond to impact at nearly the speed of light, rather than the speed of sound.
“Because the electronics on each individual building block can harvest energy from light, you can design a material to respond in programmed ways to various stimuli. When prodded, such materials, instead of deforming, could ‘run’ away, or push back with greater force than they experienced,” Cohen said. “We think that these active metamaterials — these elastronic materials — could form the basis for a new type of intelligent matter governed by physical principles that transcend what is possible in the natural world.”
New research has found four genes with some of the largest known effects on the timing of menopause discovered to date, providing new insight into links between menopause timing and cancer risk.
Published in Nature, the large-scale analysis was funded by the Medical Research Council and Wellcome. The team first looked at variation in data from genetic sequencing of 106,973 post-menopausal female participants in the UK Biobank study. Researchers focussed on rare types of genetic changes which cause a loss of the protein, and investigated their effect on the timing of menopause.
The genetic changes studied are all rare in the population, however their influence on menopause is five times greater than the impact of any previously identified common genetic variant. The strongest effect was found from gene variants in ZNF518A, only found in one in 4,000 women. These variants shortened reproductive lifespan more than most previously identified genes.
Discovering the effect of the genes gives scientists a better understanding of the biological mechanisms underpinning menopause, and links to other diseases.
Study co-lead Professor Anna Murray, of the University of Exeter Medical School, said: “For decades, menopause has been under-researched, yet now this is a rapidly evolving area of science. The timing of menopause has a huge impact on women as they plan their careers and lives, and understanding the genetic changes is of particular interest in terms of potential treatments that could prolong reproductive life in future.”
When unrepaired DNA damage occurs in eggs, they can die. The rate at which eggs are lost determines when women experience menopause. The team’s previous work has shown that many genes that influence the timing of menopause are likely to do this by affecting the genetic integrity of eggs. The same factors affect other cells and tissue types in parallel, and in this new study, the team found that many of the genes linked to menopause timing are also risk factors for cancer. These include changes in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, which result in earlier menopause and also in increased risk of cancer.
This is thought to be the process at play in a fifth new gene linked to menopause timing (SAMHD1). The team discovered that changes in this gene can cause women to go through menopause over a year later than average. The researchers also found for the first time that changes in this gene cause predisposition to various cancers in men and women.
Professor John Perry, co-lead from the MRC Epidemiology Unit at the University of Cambridge added: “Past research suggests the female ovary ages at a faster rate than other organ in the body, and this is a model system for understanding the biology of broader ageing. Our latest research builds on this concept, demonstrating that studying ovarian ageing will not only lead to a better understanding of the biology behind infertility and other reproductive disorders, but will enhance our understanding of fundamental processes that regulate DNA damage and cancer risk in the general population.”
Using data from the 100,000 Genomes project, led by Genomics England and NHS England, the team next found that mothers with a high number of genetic variants that cause earlier menopause tended to have more new changes in the DNA they passed onto their children. The study authors believe this is because the relevant genes are involved in repairing damage to DNA, so this function may be compromised in the ovaries, enabling new genetic changes to occur in the eggs.
Dr Hilary Martin, a study co-lead from the Wellcome Sanger Institute, said: “New changes to the DNA in the egg or sperm are the source of all genetic variation in humans, contributing to differences between individuals in their appearance, behaviours and risk of disease. Until now, we knew very little about what influences these new DNA changes, apart from parental age. This is the first time we’ve seen that existing common variation in DNA influences the rate of these changes.”
What if that proverbial man in the mirror was a fish? Would it change its ways? According to an Osaka Metropolitan University-led research group, yes, it would.
The team of OMU Graduate School of Science student Taiga Kobayashi, Specially Appointed Professor Masanori Kohda, Professor Satoshi Awata, and Specially Appointed Researcher Shumpei Sogawa, and Professor Redouan Bshary of Switzerland’s University of Neuchâtel, were among the group that last year reported the cleaner wrasse could identify photographs of itself as itself, based on its face through mirror self-recognition.
This time, the cleaner wrasse’s behavior of going to look in the mirror installed in a tank when necessary indicated the possibility that the fish were using the mirror to check their own body size against that of other fish and predict the outcome of fights.
“The results that fish can use the mirror as a tool can help clarify the similarities between human and non-human animal self-awareness and provide important clues to elucidate how self-awareness has evolved,” doctoral candidate Kobayashi declared.
This study was financially supported by JST SPRING (JPMJSP2139 to T.K.), JSPS KAKENHI (23KJ1829 to T.K., 19F19713 and 20K20630 to M.K., 22H02703 to S.A., and 20K20154 to S.S.), Swiss Science Foundation (310030_192673 to R.B.), and an OCU Strategic Research Grant 2018-2019 (to M.K. and S.A.).
-
Solar Energy3 years agoDLR testing the use of molten salt in a solar power plant in Portugal
-
world news10 months ago
Gulf, France aid Gaza, Russia evacuates citizens
-
Camera3 years agoCharles ‘Chuck’ Geschke, co-founder of Adobe and inventor of the PDF, dies at 81
-
Solar Energy10 months agoGlencore eyes options on battery recycling project
-
Camera10 months agoDJI Air 3 vs. Mini 4 Pro: which compact drone is best?
-
TOP SCEINCE5 months agoCan animals count?
-
world news10 months ago
Strong majority of Americans support Israel-Hamas hostage deal
-
Camera3 years ago80,000MP panoramas: EarthCam announces world’s highest-resolution robotic webcam
